«Մասնակից:Մարի Ավետիսյան/ԱվազարկղԱ»–ի խմբագրումների տարբերություն

Վիքիպեդիայից՝ ազատ հանրագիտարանից
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Տող 36. Տող 36.


===Վերածում մզկիթի(2020–)===
===Վերածում մզկիթի(2020–)===
2005 թվականին
In 2005, the Association of Permanent Foundations and Service to Historical Artifacts and Environment filed a lawsuit to challenge the status of the Chora Church as a museum.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kokkinidis |first1=Tassos |title=Turkey to Turn Historic Orthodox Church Into a Mosque; Is Hagia Sophia Next? |url=https://eu.greekreporter.com/2019/11/21/turkey-to-turn-historic-orthodox-church-into-a-mosque-is-hagia-sophia-next/ |publisher=Greek Reporter |accessdate=10 July 2020}}</ref> In November 2019, the [[Turkish Council of State]], Turkey's highest administrative court, ordered that it was to be reconverted to a mosque.<ref name=Yackley/> In August 2020, its status changed to a mosque.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-converts-kariye-museum-into-mosque-157585 |title=Turkey converts Kariye Museum into mosque |date=21 August 2020 |publisher= Hürriyet Daily News website |access-date=21 August 2020}}</ref>

In 2005, the Association of Permanent Foundations and Service to Historical Artifacts and Environment filed a lawsuit to challenge the status of the Chora Church as a museum.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kokkinidis |first1=Tassos |title=Turkey to Turn Historic Orthodox Church Into a Mosque; Is Hagia Sophia Next? |url=https://eu.greekreporter.com/2019/11/21/turkey-to-turn-historic-orthodox-church-into-a-mosque-is-hagia-sophia-next/ |publisher=Greek Reporter |accessdate=10 July 2020}}</ref> In November 2019, the [[Turkish Council of State]], Turkey's highest administrative court, ordered that it was to be reconverted to a mosque.<ref name="Yackley" /> In August 2020, its status changed to a mosque.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-converts-kariye-museum-into-mosque-157585 |title=Turkey converts Kariye Museum into mosque |date=21 August 2020 |publisher= Hürriyet Daily News website |access-date=21 August 2020}}</ref>


The move to convert Chora Church into a mosque was widely condemned by Greek Orthodox and Protestant Christians in Turkey.<ref name="Casper2020"/> This caused a sharp rebuke by Turkey.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-slams-greece-over-statement-on-conversion-of-kariye-museum-to-mosque-157599|title=Turkey slams Greece over statement on conversion of Kariye Museum to mosque|date=22 August 2020|publisher= Hürriyet Daily News website|access-date=24 August 2020}}</ref>
The move to convert Chora Church into a mosque was widely condemned by Greek Orthodox and Protestant Christians in Turkey.<ref name="Casper2020"/> This caused a sharp rebuke by Turkey.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-slams-greece-over-statement-on-conversion-of-kariye-museum-to-mosque-157599|title=Turkey slams Greece over statement on conversion of Kariye Museum to mosque|date=22 August 2020|publisher= Hürriyet Daily News website|access-date=24 August 2020}}</ref>

18:36, 29 Օգոստոսի 2020-ի տարբերակ

Խորայի եկեղեցին առջևից

Քարիյե մզկիթ, նախկինում՝ Խորայի Սուրբ Փրկիչ եկեղեցի (հուն․՝ Ἐκκλησία τοῦ Ἁγίου Σωτῆρος ἐν τῇ Χώρᾳ; թուրքերեն՝ Kariye Müzesi, Kariye Camii, Kariye Kilisesi), միջնադարյան հունական ուղղափառ եկեղեցի[1], որն այսօր գործում է Ստամբուլի Էդիրնեքափը թաղամասում՝ իբրև մզկիթ: Թաղամասը գտնվում է Ֆաթիհ շրջանի արևմտյան մասում: Խորայի եկեղեցին կառուցված է բյուզանդական ճարտարապետական ոճով: 16-րդ դարում՝ օսմանյան շրջանում, քրիստոնեական եկեղեցին վերածվել է մզկիթի: 1945 թվականին այն դարձել է թանգարան, իսկ 2020 թվականին կրկին վերածվել է մզկիթի[2][3]: Եկեղեցու պատերը ներսից ծածկված են բյուզանդական շրջանի քրիստոնեական ամենահին և լավ պահպանված խճանկարներով և ֆրեսկոներով: Դրանք հայտնաբերվել և վերականգնվել են այն բանից հետո, երբ շինությունը աշխարհիկացվել է և վերածվել թանգարանի:

Խորայի եկեղեցին մոտավորապես 1900 թվականին
Խորայի եկեղեցին 1903 թվականին, Բրուկլինի թանգարանի արխիվ, Վ. Հ. Գուդյըրի հավաքածուից

Անվանում

Չորրորդ դարի վանքը, որն իր մեջ էր ներառում այս եկեղեցին, գտնվում էր Կոստանդնուպոլիս քաղաքից դուրս: Հունարենից բառացի թարգմանությամբ եկեղեցու ամբողջական անունն է «քաղաքից դուրս Սուրբ Փրկչի եկեղեցի» (հուն.՝ ἡ Ἐκκλησία τοῦ Ἁγίου Σωτῆρος ἐν τῇ Χώρᾳhē Ekklēsia tou Hagiou Sōtēros en tēi Chōrāi): Այսպիսով՝ հաճախ այն սխալմամբ կոչում են Սուրբ Փրկիչ: Հունական անվան վերջին հատվածը՝ Խորա, նախապես վերաբերել է եկեղեցու տեղադրությանը՝ Կ.Պոլսի պատերից դուրս, որն էլ ժամանակի ընթացքում դարձել է եկեղեցու կրճատ անվանումը: Անունը պետք է որ խորհրդանշական իմաստ ունենա, քանի որ նարտեքսի վրա եղած խճանկարները նկարագրում են Քրիստոսին՝ իբրև Ապրողների երկիր (ἡ Χώρα τῶν ζώντων, hē Chōra tōn zōntōn), և Մարիամին՝ Հիսուսի մորը՝ իբրև Անկրելիի կրող (ἡ Χώρα τοῦ Ἀχωρήτου, hē Chōra tou Achōrētou):

Պատմություն

Խորայի եկեղեցին հետևից

Առաջին շրջան (4-րդ դար)

Խորայի եկեղեցին սկզբնապես եղել է կառուցված Կ.Պոլսի պարիսպներից դուրս (կանգնեցված Կոստանդին Մեծի կողմից)՝ Ոսկեղջյուրի հարավում գտնվող վանական համալիրի մի մասը: Երբ Թեոդոսիոս II-ը 413-414 թվականներին հսկայական պարիսպներ է կառուցել, եկեղեցին ընդգրկվել է քաղաքի պաշտպանական շրջանակի մեջ, սակայն պահպանել է Խորա անունը:

Երկրորդ շրջան (11-րդ դար)

Ներկայիս շինության հիմնական նյութը թվագրվում է 1077-1081 թվականներով, երբ Մարիա Դուկինան՝ Ալեքսիոս I Կոմնենոս կայսեր խորթ մայրը[5], վերակառուցել է Խորայի եկեղեցին խաչաձև հիմքով, որը այդ ժամանակի ճարտարապետական հայտնի ոճ էր: 12-րդ դարի սկզբին եկեղեցին մասնակի փլուզվել է հավանաբար երկրաշարժի պատճառով:

Երրորդ շրջան՝ նոր զարդարանքներ (14-րդ դար)

Եկեղեցին վերակառուցվել է Իսահակ Կոմնենոսի՝ Ալեքսիոսի երրորդ որդու կողմից: Սակայն միայն կառուցման այս երրորդ շրջանից հետո էր, որ եկեղեցին իր ներկայիս տեսքով ավարտին է հասցվել: Բյուզանդական հզոր պետական գործիչ Թեոդոր Մետոխիտեսը եկեղեցին պատել է խճանկարներով և ֆրեսկոներով: Այս տպավորիչ զարդարանքները արվել են 1315-1321 թվականների ընթացքում: Խճանկարները բյուզանդական արվեստի լավագույն օրինակներից են: Հայտնի չէ, թե ովքեր են եղել նկարիչները: 1328 թվականին Թեոդորը արտաքսվել է բռնազավթիչ Անդրոնիկոս III Պալեոլոգոսի կողմից: Սակայն երկու տարի անց նրան թույլատրվել է վերադառնալ քաղաք: Նա իր կյանքի վերջին տարիներն անցկացրել է Խորայի եկեղեցում՝ իբրև վանական:

Կոստանդնուպոլսի անկումից առաջ

13-րդ դարի վերջին և 14-րդ դարի սկզբին վանքում է բնակվել գիտնական Մաքսիմուս Պլանուդեսի: Նա պատասխանատու էր Պտղոմեոսի «Աշխարհագրության» վերականգնման և այն Բյուզանդիային, ի վերջո նաև Վերածննդի շրջանի Իտալիային ներկայացնելու համար: 1453 թվականին Կոստանդնուպոլսի գրավման ժամանակ քաղաքի պաշտպան համարվող Թեոտոկոս Օդիգետրիայի սրբապատկերը բերվել է Խորա՝ օսմանյան հարձակումների դեմ քաղաքի պաշտպաններին աջակցելու նպատակով[4]:

Քարիյե մզկիթ (մոտ 1500–1945)

Օսմանյան կայսրության կողմից քաղաքի գրավումից շուրջ 50 տարի անց Աթիք Ալի փաշան՝ սուլթան Բայազեդ II-ի մեծ վեզիրը, հրամայել է Խորայի եկեղեցին վերածել մզկիթի՝ Քարյե մզկիթ: Քարիյե բառը ծագում է հունական Խորա անունից[5]: Այն պատճառով, որ իսլամում արգելված են սրբապատկերները, խճանկարները և ֆրեսկոները ծածկվել են սվաղի շերտով: Վերջինս և տարածաշրջանում հաճախակի տեղի ունեցող երկրաշարժերը վնաս են հասցրել արվեստի այս գործին:

Թանգարան (1945–2020)

1945 թվականին թուրքական կառավարությունը շինությունը վերածել է թանգարանի[6]: 1948 թվականին Ամերիկայի բյուզանդական ինստիստուտի և բյուզանդագիտության Դամբարթոն Օուքս կենտրոնի ամերիկացի ներկայացուցիչներ Թոմաս Ուիթմորը և Փոլ Անդերվուդը հովանավորել են եկեղեցու վերականգնման աշխատանքները: Այդ օրից ի վեր շինությունը չի ծառայել իբրև մզկիթ: 1958 թվականին այն բացվել է հանրության համար՝ իբրև Քարիյե թանգարան:

Վերածում մզկիթի(2020–)

2005 թվականին

In 2005, the Association of Permanent Foundations and Service to Historical Artifacts and Environment filed a lawsuit to challenge the status of the Chora Church as a museum.[7] In November 2019, the Turkish Council of State, Turkey's highest administrative court, ordered that it was to be reconverted to a mosque.[6] In August 2020, its status changed to a mosque.[8]

The move to convert Chora Church into a mosque was widely condemned by Greek Orthodox and Protestant Christians in Turkey.[2] This caused a sharp rebuke by Turkey.[9]

Interior

The Chora Church is not as large as some of the other surviving Byzantine churches of Istanbul (it covers 742.5 m²) but it is unique among them, because of its almost completely still extant internal decoration. The building divides into three main areas: the entrance hall or narthex, the main body of the church or naos (nave), and the side chapel or parecclesion. The building has six domes: two above the esonarthex, one above the parecclesion and three above the naos.

Mosaic of the enrollment for taxation before Governor Quirinius
Mosaic of the journey to Bethlehem
The mosaic in the lunette over the doorway to the esonarthex portrays Christ as “The Land of the Living”.
Mosaic of enthroned Christ with Theodore Metochites presenting a model of his church

Narthex

The main, west door of the Chora Church opens into the narthex. It divides north-south into the outer, or exonarthex and the inner, or esonarthex.

Outer narthex (exonarthex)

Saint Peter mosaic

The exonarthex (or outer narthex) is the first part of the church that one enters. It is a transverse corridor, 4 m wide and 23 m long, which is partially open on its eastern length into the parallel esonarthex. The southern end of the exonarthex opens out through the esonarthex forming a western ante-chamber to the parecclesion. The mosaics that decorate the exonarthex include:

  1. Joseph's dream and journey to Bethlehem;
  2. Enrollment for taxation;
  3. Nativity, birth of Christ;
  4. Journey of the Magi;
  5. Inquiry of King Herod;
  6. Flight into Egypt;
  7. Two frescoes of the massacres ordered by King Herod;
  8. Mothers mourning for their children;
  9. Flight of Elizabeth, mother of John the Baptist;
  10. Joseph dreaming, return of the holy family from Egypt to Nazareth;
  11. Christ taken to Jerusalem for the Passover;
  12. John the Baptist bearing witness to Christ;
  13. Miracle;
  14. Three more Miracles.
  15. Jesus Christ;
  16. Virgin and Angels praying.

Inner narthex (esonarthex)

Mosaic of the Virgin Mother with child, north dome of the inner narthex
Mosaic of Christ Pantocrator, south dome of the inner narthex

The esonarthex (or inner narthex) is similar to the exonarthex, running parallel to it. Like the exonarthex, the esonarthex is 4 m wide, but it is slightly shorter, 18 m long. Its central, eastern door opens into the naos, whilst another door, at the southern end of the esonarthex opens into the rectangular ante-chamber of the parecclesion. At its northern end, a door from the esonarthex leads into a broad west-east corridor that runs along the northern side of the naos and into the prothesis. The esonarthex has two domes. The smaller is above the entrance to the northern corridor; the larger is midway between the entrances into the naos and the pareclession.

  1. Enthroned Christ with Theodore Metochites presenting a model of his church;
  2. Saint Peter;
  3. Saint Paul;
  4. Deesis, Christ and the Virgin Mary (without John the Baptist) with two donors below;
  5. Genealogy of Christ;
  6. Religious and noble ancestors of Christ.

The mosaics in the first three bays of the inner narthex give an account of the Life of the Virgin, and her parents. Some of them are as follows:

  1. Rejection of Joachim's offerings;
  2. Annunciation of Saint Anne, the angel of the Lord announcing to Anne that her prayer for a child has been heard;
  3. Meeting of Joachim and Anne;
  4. Birth of the Virgin Mary;
  5. First seven steps of the Virgin;
  6. The Virgin given affection by her parents;
  7. The Virgin blessed by the priests;
  8. Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple;
  9. The Virgin receiving bread from an Angel;
  10. The Virgin receiving the skein of purple wool, as the priests decided to have the attendant maidens weave a veil for the Temple;
  11. Zechariah praying, when it was time for the Virgin to marry, High Priest Zechariah called all the widowers together and placed their rods on the altar, praying for a sign showing to whom she should be given;
  12. The Virgin entrusted to Joseph;
  13. Joseph taking the Virgin to his house;
  14. Annunciation to the Virgin at the well;
  15. Joseph leaving the Virgin, Joseph had to leave for six months on business and when he returned the Virgin was pregnant and he is suspicious of that.
Mosaic of the Koimesis in the Naos

Nave (naos)

The central doors of the esonarthex lead into the main body of the church, the naos. The largest dome in the church (7.7 m diameter) is above the centre of the naos. Two smaller domes flank the modest apse: the northern dome is over the prothesis, which is linked by short passage to the bema; the southern dome is over the diaconicon, which is reached via the parecclesion.

  1. Koimesis, the Dormition of the Virgin. Before ascending to Heaven, her last sleep. Jesus is holding an infant, symbol of Mary's soul;
  2. Jesus Christ;
  3. Theodokos, the Virgin Mary with child.
View into the parecclesion

Side chapel (parecclesion)

To the right of the esonarthex, doors open into the side chapel, or parecclesion. The parecclesion was used as a mortuary chapel for family burials and memorials. The second largest dome (4.5 m diameter) in the church graces the centre of the roof of the parecclesion. A small passageway links the parecclesion directly into the naos, and off this passage can be found a small oratory and a storeroom. The parecclesion is covered in frescoes:

  1. Anastasis, the Resurrection. Christ, who had just broken down the gates of hell, is standing in the middle and pulling Adam and Eve out of their tombs. Behind Adam stand John the Baptist, David, and Solomon. Others are righteous kings;
  2. Second coming of Christ, the last judgment. Jesus is enthroned and on both sides the Virgin Mary and John the Baptist (this trio is also called the Deesis);
  3. Virgin and Child;
  4. Heavenly Court of Angels;
  5. Two panels of Moses.

See also

Notes

  1. Ousterhout, 1988
  2. 2,0 2,1 Casper, Jayson (21 August 2020). «Turkey Turns Another Historic Church into a Mosque» (English). Christianity Today. Վերցված է 22 August 2020-ին.{{cite web}}: CS1 սպաս․ չճանաչված լեզու (link)
  3. «Turkey converts Kariye Museum into mosque» (English). Hürriyet Daily News. 21 August 2020. Վերցված է 22 August 2020-ին.{{cite web}}: CS1 սպաս․ չճանաչված լեզու (link)
  4. Van Millingen
  5. «About Chora». choramuseum.
  6. 6,0 6,1 Yackley, Ayla (3 December 2019). «Court Ruling Converting Turkish Museum to Mosque Could Set Precedent for Hagia Sophia». The Art Newspaper. Վերցված է 9 December 2019-ին.
  7. Kokkinidis, Tassos. «Turkey to Turn Historic Orthodox Church Into a Mosque; Is Hagia Sophia Next?». Greek Reporter. Վերցված է 10 July 2020-ին.
  8. «Turkey converts Kariye Museum into mosque». Hürriyet Daily News website. 21 August 2020. Վերցված է 21 August 2020-ին.
  9. «Turkey slams Greece over statement on conversion of Kariye Museum to mosque». Hürriyet Daily News website. 22 August 2020. Վերցված է 24 August 2020-ին.

References

Literature

  • Chora: The Kariye Museum. Net Turistik Yayınlar (1987). 978-975-479-045-0
  • Feridun Dirimtekin. The historical monument of Kariye. Türkiye Turing ve Otomobil Kurumu (1966). ASIN B0007JHABQ
  • Semavi Eyice. Kariye Mosque Church of Chora Monastery. Net Turistik Yayınlar A.Ş. (1997). 978-975-479-444-1
  • Çelik Gülersoy. Kariye (Chora). ASIN B000RMMHZ2
  • Jonathan Harris, Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium. Hambledon/Continuum (2007). 978-1-84725-179-4
  • Karahan, Anne. Byzantine Holy Images – Transcendence and Immanence. The Theological Background of the Iconography and Aesthetics of the Chora Church (monography, 355 pp) (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta No. 176) Leuven-Paris-Walpole, MA: Peeters Publishers 2010.978-90-429-2080-4
  • Karahan, Anne. “The Paleologan Iconography of the Chora Church and its Relation to Greek Antiquity”. In: Journal of Art History 66 (1997), Issue 2 & 3: pp. 89–95 Routhledge (Taylor & Francis Group online publication 1 September 2008: DOI:10.1080/00233609708604425) 1997
  • Krannert Art Museum. Restoring Byzantium: The Kariye Camii in Istanbul and the Byzantine Institute Restoration. Miriam & IRA D. Wallach Art Gallery (2004). 1-884919-15-4
  • Ousterhout, Robert G. (1988). The Architecture of the Kariye Camii in Istanbul. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. ISBN 978-0-88402-165-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (օգնություն)
  • Robert Ousterhout (Editor), Leslie Brubaker (Editor). The Sacred Image East and West. University of Illinois Press (1994). 978-0-252-02096-4
  • Saint Saviour in Chora. A Turizm Yayınları Ltd. (1988). ASIN B000FK8854
  • Cevdet Turkay. Kariye Mosque. (1964). ASIN B000IUWV2C
  • Paul A. Underwood. The Kariye Djami in 3 Volumes. Bollingen (1966). ASIN B000WMDL7U
  • Paul A. Underwood. Third Preliminary Report on the Restoration of the Frescoes in the Kariye Camii at Istanbul. Harvard University Press (1958). ASIN B000IBCESM
  • Edda Renker Weissenbacher. Kariye: The Chora Church, Step by Step. ASIN B000RBATF8

External links


Կաղապար:Fatih Կաղապար:Churches and Monasteries of Constantinople Կաղապար:Churches-Mosques in Istanbul Կաղապար:Byzantine Empire topics Կաղապար:Mosques in Turkey Կաղապար:Museums in Istanbul


Կաղապար:Use dmy dates

Կաղապար:Infobox language Կաղապար:Azerbaijanis

Ադրբեջաներեն, թյուրքական լեզվախմբի լեզու, որը հիմնականում օգտագործվում է Ադրբեջանի Հանրապետության բնակչության կողմից: Ադրբեջանի Հանրապետությունում խոսվող լեզուն որոշ չափով տարբերվում է Իրանի հյուսիսում բնակվող թյուրքալեզու բնակիչների լեզվից: Տարբերությունները վերաբերում են հնչյունաբանությանն

Azerbaijani (/ˌæzərbˈɑːni/) or Azeri (/æˈzɛəri, ɑː-, ə-/), also known as Azerbaijani Turkic[1] or Azerbaijani Turkish,[2][3] is a Turkic language spoken primarily by the Azerbaijani people, who live mainly in the Republic of Azerbaijan where the North Azerbaijani variety is spoken and in Iranian Azerbaijan where the South Azerbaijani variety is spoken.[4] Although there is a very high degree of mutual intelligibility between both forms of Azerbaijani, there are some significant differences in phonology, lexicon, morphology, syntax and sources of loanwords.[5]

North Azerbaijani has official status in the Republic of Azerbaijan and Dagestan (a federal subject of Russia) but South Azerbaijani does not have official status in Iran, where the majority of Azerbaijanis live. It is also spoken to lesser varying degrees in Azerbaijani communities of Georgia and Turkey and by diaspora communities, primarily in Europe and North America.

Both Azerbaijani varieties are members of the Oghuz branch of the Turkic languages. The standardized form of North Azerbaijani (spoken in the Republic of Azerbaijan and Russia) is based on the Shirvani dialect, while Iranian Azerbaijani uses the Tabrizi dialect as its prestige variety. Azerbaijani is closely related to Gagauz, Qashqai, Crimean Tatar, Turkish and Turkmen, sharing varying degrees of mutual intelligibility with each of those languages.[6] According to linguistic comparative studies, the closest relative of Azerbaijani is the Turkmen language.[7]

Etymology and background

Historically the language was referred by its native speakers as Türki[8] meaning "Turkic" or Azərbaycan türkcəsi meaning "Azerbaijani Turkic".

Prior to the establishment of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, who adopted the name of "Azerbaijan" for political reasons in 1918, the name of "Azerbaijan" was exclusively used to identify the adjacent region of contemporary northwestern Iran.[9][10][11] After the establishment of the Azerbaijan SSR,[12] on the order of Soviet leader Stalin, the "name of the formal language" of the Azerbaijan SSR was "changed from Turkish to Azeri".[12]

History and evolution

Garden of Pleasures by Fuzûlî in Azerbaijani.[13]

Azerbaijani evolved from the Eastern branch of Oghuz Turkic ("Western Turkic")[14] which spread to the Caucasus, in Eastern Europe,[15][16] and northern Iran, in Western Asia, during the medieval Turkic migrations.[17] Persian and Arabic influenced the language, but Arabic words were mainly transmitted through the intermediary of literary Persian.[18] Azerbaijani is, perhaps after Uzbek, the Turkic language upon which Persian and other Iranian languages have exerted the strongest impact—mainly in phonology, syntax and vocabulary, less in morphology.[19]

The Turkic language of Azerbaijan gradually supplanted the Iranian languages in what is now northern Iran, and a variety of languages of the Caucasus and Iranian languages spoken in the Caucasus, particularly Udi and Old Azeri. By the beginning of the 16th century, it had become the dominant language of the region, and was a spoken language in the court of the Safavids and Afsharids.

The historical development of Azerbaijani can be divided into two major periods: early (c. 16th to 18th century) and modern (18th century to present). Early Azerbaijani differs from its descendant in that it contained a much larger number of Persian, and Arabic loanwords, phrases and syntactic elements. Early writings in Azerbaijani also demonstrate linguistic interchangeability between Oghuz and Kypchak elements in many aspects (such as pronouns, case endings, participles, etc.). As Azerbaijani gradually moved from being merely a language of epic and lyric poetry to being also a language of journalism and scientific research, its literary version has become more or less unified and simplified with the loss of many archaic Turkic elements, stilted Iranisms and Ottomanisms, and other words, expressions, and rules that failed to gain popularity among the Azerbaijani masses.

Between c. 1900 and 1930, there were several competing approaches to the unification of the national language in what is now the Azerbaijan Republic, popularized by the scholars such as Hasan bey Zardabi and Mammad agha Shahtakhtinski. Despite major differences, they all aimed primarily at making it easy for semi-literate masses to read and understand literature. They all criticized the overuse of Persian, Arabic, and European elements in both colloquial and literary language and called for a simpler and more popular style.

The Russian conquest of Transcaucasia in the 19th century split the language community across two states; the Soviet Union promoted development of the language, but set it back considerably with two successive script changes[20] – from the Persian to Latin and then to the Cyrillic script – while Iranian Azerbaijanis continued to use the Persian script as they always had. Despite the wide use of Azerbaijani in the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic, it became the official language of Azerbaijan only in 1956.[21] After independence, the Azerbaijan Republic decided to switch back to a modified Latin script.

Azerbaijani literature

Mohammad-Hossein Shahriar, Iranian Azerbaijani poet, who wrote in Azerbaijani and Persian.

The development of Azerbaijani literature is closely associated with Anatolian Turkish, written in Perso-Arabic script. Examples of its detachment date to the 14th century or earlier.[22][23] Kadi Burhan al-Din, Hesenoghlu, and Imadaddin Nasimi helped to establish Azerbaiijani as a literary language in the 14th century through poetry and other works.[23] The ruler and poet Ismail I wrote under the pen name Khatā'ī (which means "sinner" in Persian) during the fifteenth century[24][25] During the 16th century, the poet, writer and thinker Fuzûlî wrote mainly in Azerbaijani but also translated his poems into Arabic and Persian.[24]

Starting in the 1830s, several newspapers were published in Iran during the reign of the Azerbaijani speaking Qajar dynasty but it is unknown whether any of these newspapers were written in Azerbaijani. In 1875 Akinchi (Əkinçi / اکينچی ) ("The Ploughman") became the first Azerbaijani newspaper to be published in the Russian Empire. It was started by Hasan bey Zardabi, a journalist and education advocate.[23] Following the rule of the Qajar dynasty Iran was ruled by Reza Shah who banned the publication of texts in Azerbaijani.[փա՞ստ] Modern literature in the Republic of Azerbaijan is based on the Shirvani dialect mainly, while in Iranian Azerbaijan it is based on the Tabrizi dialect.

Mohammad-Hossein Shahriar is an important figure in Azerbaijani poetry. His most important work is Heydar Babaya Salam and it is considered to be a pinnacle of Azerbaijani literature and gained popularity in the Turkic-speaking world. It was translated into more than 30 languages.[26]

In the mid-19th century, Azerbaijani literature was taught at schools in Baku, Ganja, Shaki, Tbilisi, and Yerevan. Since 1845, it has also been taught in the Saint Petersburg State University in Russia. In 2018, Azerbaijani language and literature programs are offered in the United States at several universities, including: Indiana University, UCLA, and University of Texas at Austin.[23] The vast majority, if not all Azerbaijani language courses teach North Azerbaijani written in the Latin script and not South Azerbaijani written in the Perso-Arabic script.

Modern literature in the Republic of Azerbaijan is primarily based on the Shirvani dialect, while in Iranian Azerbaijan region (historic Azerbaijan) it is based on the Tabrizi one.

Lingua franca

Azerbaijani-language road sign.

Azerbaijani served as a lingua franca throughout most parts of Transcaucasia except the Black Sea coast, in southern Dagestan,[27][28][29] the Eastern Anatolia Region and Iranian Azerbaijan from the 16th to the early 20th centuries,[30][31] alongside the cultural, administrative, court literature, and most importantly official language of all these regions, namely Persian.[32] From the early 16th century up to the course of the 19th century, these regions and territories were all ruled by the Iranian Safavids, Afsharids and Qajars until the cession of Transcaucasia proper and Dagestan by Qajar Iran to the Russian Empire per the 1813 Treaty of Gulistan and the 1828 Treaty of Turkmenchay. Per the 1829 Caucasus School Statute, Azerbaijani was to be taught in all district schools of Ganja, Shusha, Nukha (present-day Shaki), Shamakhi, Quba, Baku, Derbent, Yerevan, Nakhchivan, Akhaltsikhe, and Lankaran. Beginning in 1834, it was introduced as a language of study in Kutaisi instead of Armenian. In 1853, Azerbaijani became a compulsory language for students of all backgrounds in all of Transcaucasia with the exception of the Tiflis Governorate.[33]

North vs. South Azerbaijani

Turkish, Azerbaijani, and Turkmen are Oghuz languages

Azerbaijani is one of the Oghuz languages within the Turkic language family. Ethnologue classifies North Azerbaijani (spoken mainly in the Republic of Azerbaijan and Russia) and South Azerbaijani (spoken in Iran, Iraq and Syria) as separate languages with "significant differences in phonology, lexicon, morphology, syntax, and loanwords."[5]

Svante Cornell wrote in his 2001 book Small Nations and Great Powers that "it is certain that Russian and Iranian words (sic), respectively, have entered the vocabulary on either sides of the Araxes river, but this has not occurred to an extend that it could pose difficulties for communication.".[34] There are numerous dialects, with 21 North Azerbaijani dialects and 11 South Azerbaijani dialects identified by Ethnologue.[5][35]

Four varieties have been accorded ISO 639-3 language codes: North Azerbaijani, South Azerbaijani, Salchuq, and Qashqai. The Glottolog 4.1 database classifies North Azerbaijani, with 20 dialects, and South Azerbaijani, with 13 dialects, under the Modern Azeric family, a branch of Central Oghuz.[36]

According to the Linguasphere Observatory, all Oghuz languages form part of a single "outer language" of which North and South Azerbaijani are "inner languages".[փա՞ստ]

North Azerbaijani

Knowledge of either of the two major Western Oghuz languages, Turkish or Azerbaijani in Europe

North Azerbaijani,[5] or Northern Azerbaijani, is the official language of the Republic of Azerbaijan. It is closely related to the modern day Istanbul Turkish, the official language of Turkey. It is also spoken in southern Dagestan, along the Caspian coast in the southern Caucasus Mountains and in scattered regions throughout Central Asia. As of 2011 there are some 9.23 million speakers of North Azerbaijani including 4 million monolingual speakers (many North Azerbaijani speakers also speak Russian, as is common throughout former USSR countries).[5]

The Shirvan dialect as spoken in Baku is the basis of standard Azerbaijani. Since 1992, it has been officially written with a Latin script in the Republic of Azerbaijan, but the older Cyrillic script was still widely used in the late 1990s.[37]

Ethnologue lists 21 North Azerbaijani dialects: Quba, Derbend, Baku, Shamakhi, Salyan, Lenkaran, Qazakh, Airym, Borcala, Terekeme, Qyzylbash, Nukha, Zaqatala (Mugaly), Qabala, Yerevan, Nakhchivan, Ordubad, Ganja, Shusha (Karabakh), Karapapak.[5]

South Azerbaijani

South Azerbaijani,[35] is widely spoken in Iranian Azerbaijan (historic Azerbaijan) and, to a lesser extent, in neighboring regions of Turkey and Iraq, with smaller communities in Syria. In Iran, the Persian word for Azerbaijani is borrowed as Torki "Turkic".[35] In Iran, it is spoken mainly in East Azerbaijan, West Azerbaijan, Ardabil and Zanjan. It is also widely spoken in Tehran and across Tehran Province, as Azerbaijanis form by far the largest minority in the city and the wider province,[38] comprising about 1/3,[39][40] of its total population. The CIA World Factbook reports in 2010 the percentage of Iranian Azerbaijani speakers at around 16 percent of the Iranian population, or approximately 13 million people worldwide,[41] and ethnic Azeris form by far the second largest ethnic group of Iran, thus making the language also the second most spoken language in the nation.[42] Ethnologue reports 10.9 million Iranian Azerbaijani in Iran in 2016 and 13,823,350 worldwide.[35] Dialects of South Azerbaijani include: Aynallu (Inallu, Inanlu), Qarapapaq, Tabrizi, Qashqai, Afshari (Afsar, Afshar), Shahsavani (Shahseven), Muqaddam, Baharlu (Kamesh), Nafar, Qaragözlü, Pishaqchi, Bayatlu, Qajar, Marandli.[35]

Azerbaijani vs. Turkish

Reza Shah and Atatürk in Turkey.

Historically, Azerbaijani and Turkish speakers have been able to communicate with relative ease. One example of this is when Reza Shah Pahlavi of Iran (who spoke Azerbaijani) met with Mustafa Kemal Atatürk of Turkey (who spoke Turkish) in 1934.[43][44][45][46][47][48]

Speakers of Turkish and Azerbaijani can, to an extent, communicate with each other as both languages have substantial variation and are to a degree mutually intelligible.

Azerbaijani exhibits a similar stress pattern to Turkish but simpler in some respects. Azerbaijani is a strongly stressed and partially stress-timed language unlike Turkish which is weakly stressed and syllable-timed.

Here are some words with a different pronunciation in Azerbaijani and Turkish that mean the same in both languages:

Azerbaijani Turkish English
ayaqqabı ayakkabı shoes
ayaq ayak foot
kitab kitap book
qardaş kardeş brother
qan kan blood
qaz kaz goose
qaş kaş eyebrow
qar kar snow
daş taş stone

Phonology

Phonotactics

Azerbaijani phonotactics is similar to other Oghuz Turkic languages, except:

  • Trimoraic syllables with long vowels are permissible.
  • There is an ongoing metathesis of neighboring consonants in a word. Speakers tend to reorder consonants in the order of decreasing sonorancy and back-to-front (for example, iləri becomes irəli, köprü becomes körpü, topraq becomes torpaq).[փա՞ստ] Some of the metatheses are so common in the educated speech that they are reflected in orthography (all above examples are like that). This phenomenon is more common in rural dialects, but observed even in educated young urban speakers.
  • Intramorpheme /q/ becomes /x/.

Consonants

Consonant phonemes of Standard Azerbaijani
  Labial Dental Alveolar Palato-
alveolar
Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal   Կաղապար:IPA link       Կաղապար:IPA link             
Stop Կաղապար:IPA link Կաղապար:IPA link Կաղապար:IPA link Կաղապար:IPA link     Կաղապար:IPA link  Կաղապար:IPA link Կաղապար:IPA link (Կաղապար:IPA link) (Կաղապար:IPA link) Կաղապար:IPA link  
Fricative Կաղապար:IPA link Կաղապար:IPA link Կաղապար:IPA link Կաղապար:IPA link     Կաղապար:IPA link Կաղապար:IPA link Կաղապար:IPA link Կաղապար:IPA link Կաղապար:IPA link  
Approximant           Կաղապար:IPA link     Կաղապար:IPA link      
Flap           Կաղապար:IPA link            
  1. as in Turkish, in native words the velar consonant /ɡ/ is palatalized to [ɟ] when adjacent to the front vowels, but unlike Turkish, Azerbaijani at different periods have been written using Arabic, Roman and Cyrillic letters and in each case the two allophones of /ɡ/ had their own letter.[49] ق, q, г for [ɡ] and گ, g, ҝ for [ɟ].
  2. The sound [k] is used only in loanwords; the historical unpalatalized [k] became voiced to [ɡ].
  3. /t͡ʃ/ and /d͡ʒ/ are realised as [t͡s] and [d͡z] respectively in the areas around Tabriz and to the west, south and southwest of Tabriz (including Kirkuk in Iraq); in the Nakhchivan and Ayrum dialects, in Cəbrayil and some Caspian coastal dialects;[50]
  4. In most dialects of Azerbaijani, /c/ is realized as ç when it is found in the syllabic coda or is preceded by a voiceless consonant (as in çörək [t͡ʃøˈɾæç] – "bread"; səksən [sæçˈsæn] – "eighty").
  5. /w/ exists in the Kirkuk dialect as an allophone of /v/ in Arabic loanwords.
  6. In the Baku subdialect, /ov/ may be realised as [oʊ], and /ev/ and /øv/ as [øy], e.g. /ɡovurˈmɑ/[ɡoʊrˈmɑ], /sevˈdɑ/[søyˈdɑ], /døvˈrɑn/[døyˈrɑn], as well as with surnames ending in -ov or -ev (borrowed from Russian).[51]
  7. In colloquial speech, /x/ is usually pronounced as [χ]

Dialect consonants

Examples:

Vowels

The vowels of the Azerbaijani are, in alphabetical order,[52][53] a /ɑ/, e /e/, ə /æ/, ı /ɯ/, i /i/, o /o/, ö /ø/, u /u/, ü /y/. There are no diphthongs in standard Azerbaijani when two vowels come together; when that occurs in some Arabic loanwords, diphthong is removed by either syllable separation at V.V boundary or fixing the pair as VC/CV pair, depending on the word.

South Azerbaijani vowel chart, from Mokari & Werner (2016:509)
Vowels of Standard Azerbaijani
Front Back
Unrounded Rounded Unrounded Rounded
Close Կաղապար:IPA link Կաղապար:IPA link Կաղապար:IPA link Կաղապար:IPA link
Mid Կաղապար:IPA link Կաղապար:IPA link Կաղապար:IPA link
Open Կաղապար:IPA link Կաղապար:IPA link

Կաղապար:Expand section The typical phonetic quality of South Azerbaijani vowels is as follows:

  • /i, u, æ/ are close to cardinal [[Միջազգային հնչյունական այբուբեն|[[[:Կաղապար:IPAplink]], Կաղապար:IPAplink, Կաղապար:IPAplink]]].[54]
  • /ø/ is closer to an open mid [[Միջազգային հնչյունական այբուբեն|[[[:Կաղապար:IPAplink]]]]].
  • The F1 and F2 formant frequencies overlap for /œ/ and /ɯ/. Their acoustic quality is more or less close-mid central [[Միջազգային հնչյունական այբուբեն|[[[:Կաղապար:IPAplink]], Կաղապար:IPAplink]]]. The main role in the distinction of two vowels is played by the different F3 frequencies in audition[55] and rounding in articulation. Phonologically, however, they are more distinct: /œ/ is phonologically a mid front rounded vowel, the front counterpart of /o/ and the rounded counterpart of /e/. /ɯ/ is phonologically a close back unrounded vowel, the back counterpart of /i/ and the unrounded counterpart of /u/.
  • The other mid vowels /e, o/ are closer to close-mid [[Միջազգային հնչյունական այբուբեն|[[[:Կաղապար:IPAplink]], Կաղապար:IPAplink]]] than open-mid [[Միջազգային հնչյունական այբուբեն|[[[:Կաղապար:IPAplink]], Կաղապար:IPAplink]]].[54]
  • /ɑ/ is phonetically near-open back ɑ̝ .[54]

Writing systems

Before 1929, Azerbaijani was written only in the Perso-Arabic alphabet. In 1929–1938 a Latin alphabet was in use for North Azerbaijani (although it was different from the one used now), from 1938 to 1991 the Cyrillic script was used, and in 1991 the current Latin alphabet was introduced, although the transition to it has been rather slow.[56] For instance, until an Aliyev decree on the matter in 2001,[57] newspapers would routinely write headlines in the Latin script, leaving the stories in Cyrillic;[58] the transition also resulted in some misrendering of İ as Ì.[59][60]

In Iran, Azerbaijani is still written in the Persian alphabet, and in Dagestan, in Cyrillic script.

The Perso-Arabic Azerbaijani alphabet is an abjad; that is, it does not represent vowels. Also, some consonants can be represented by more than one letter. The Azerbaijani Latin alphabet is based on the Turkish Latin alphabet, which in turn was based on former Azerbaijani Latin alphabet because of their linguistic connections and mutual intelligibility. The letters Әə, Xx, and Qq are available only in Azerbaijani for sounds which do not exist as separate phonemes in Turkish.

Old Latin
(1929-1938 version;
no longer in use;
replaced by 1991 version)
Official Latin
(Azerbaijan
since 1991)
Cyrillic
(1958 version,
still official
in Dagestan)
Perso-Arabic
(Iran;
Azerbaijan
until 1929)
IPA
A a А а آ / ـا /ɑ/
B в B b Б б /b/
Ç ç C c Ҹ ҹ /dʒ/
C c Ç ç Ч ч چ /tʃ/
D d Д д /d/
E e Е е ئ /e/
Ə ə Ә ә ا / َ / ە /æ/
F f Ф ф /f/
G g Ҝ ҝ گ /ɟ/
Ƣ ƣ Ğ ğ Ғ ғ /ɣ/
H h Һ һ ﺡ / ﻩ /h/
X x Х х خ /x/
Ь ь I ı Ы ы یٛ /ɯ/
I i İ i И и ی /i/
Ƶ ƶ J j Ж ж ژ /ʒ/
K k К к ک /c/, /k/
Q q Г г /ɡ/
L l Л л /l/
M m М м /m/
N n Н н /n/
Ꞑ ꞑ[61] Ng ng Нҝ нҝ ݣ / نگ[62] /ŋ/
O o О о وْ /o/
Ө ө Ö ö Ө ө ؤ /ø/
P p П п پ /p/
R r Р р /r/
S s С с ﺙ / ﺱ / ﺹ /s/
Ş ş Ш ш /ʃ/
T t Т т ﺕ / ﻁ /t/
U u У у ۇ /u/
Y y Ü ü Ү ү ۆ /y/
V v В в /v/
J j Y y Ј ј ی /j/
Z z З з ﺫ / ﺯ / ﺽ / ﻅ /z/
- ʼ ع /ʔ/

Northern Azerbaijani, unlike Turkish, respells foreign names to conform with Latin Azerbaijani spelling, e.g. Bush is spelled Buş and Schröder becomes Şröder. Hyphenation across lines directly corresponds to spoken syllables as in other Turkic languages.

Vocabulary

Interjections

Some samples include:

Secular:

  • Of ("Ugh!")
  • Tez Ol ("Be quick!")
  • Tez olun qızlar mədrəsəyə ("Be quick girls, to school!", a slogan for an education campaign in Azerbaijan)

Invoking deity:

  • implicitly:
    • Aman ("Mercy")
    • Çox şükür ("Much thanks")
  • explicitly:
    • Allah Allah (pronounced as Allahallah) ("Goodness gracious")
    • Hay Allah; Vallah "By God [I swear it]".
    • Çox şükür allahım ("Much thanks my god")

Formal and informal

Azerbaijani has informal and formal ways of saying things. This is because there is a strong tu-vous distinction in Turkic languages like Azerbaijani and Turkish (as well as in many other languages). The informal "you" is used when talking to close friends, relatives, animals or children. The formal "you" is used when talking to someone who is older than you or someone for whom you would like to show respect (a professor, for example).

As in many Turkic languages, personal pronouns can be omitted, and they are only added for emphasis. Azerbaijani has a phonetic writing system, so pronunciation is easy: most words are pronounced exactly as they are spelled in the modern Azerbaijani alphabet.

Category English North Azerbaijani (in Latin script)
Basic expressions yes /hæ/
no yox /jox/
hello salam /sɑlɑm/
goodbye sağ ol /ˈsɑɣ ol/
sağ olun /ˈsɑɣ olun/ (formal)
good morning sabahınız xeyır /sɑbɑhɯ(nɯ)z xejiɾ/
good afternoon günortanız xeyır /ɟynoɾt(ɯn)ɯz xejiɾ/
good evening axşamın xeyır /ɑxʃɑmɯn xejiɾ/
axşamınız xeyır /ɑxʃɑmɯ(nɯ)z xejiɾ/
Colours black qara /ɡɑɾɑ/
blue mavi /mâvi/
brown qəhvəyi / qonur
grey boz /boz/
green yaşıl /jaʃɯl/
orange narıncı /nɑɾɯnd͡ʒɯ/
pink çəhrayı
purple bənövşəyi
red qırmızı /ɡɯɾmɯzɯ/
white /ɑɣ/
yellow sarı /sɑɾɯ/

Numbers

Number Word
0 sıfır /ˈsɯfɯɾ/
1 bir /biɾ/
2 iki /ici/
3 üç /yt͡ʃ/
4 dörd /døɾd/
5 beş /beʃ/
6 altı /ɑltɯ/
7 yeddi /jed:i/
8 səkkiz /sækciz/
9 doqquz /doɡ:uz/
10 on /on/

For numbers 11–19, the numbers literally mean "10 one, 10 two" and so on.

Number Word
20 iyirmi /ijiɾmi/ [Ն 1]
30 otuz /otuz/
40 qırx /ɡɯɾx/
50 əlli /ælli/

Greater numbers are constructed by combining in tens and thousands larger to smaller in the same way, without using a conjunction in between.

See also

Notes

References

  1. Christiane Bulut. "Syntactic Traces of Turkic-Iranian Contiguity". In: Johanson, Lars and Bulut, Christiane (eds.). Turkic-Iranian Contact Areas. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2006.
  2. Djavadi, Abbas (2010-07-19). «Iran's Ethnic Azeris and the Language Question». RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty. Վերցված է 2016-01-24-ին.
  3. electricpulp.com. «AZERBAIJAN viii. Azeri Turkish – Encyclopaedia Iranica». www.iranicaonline.org. Վերցված է 2016-01-24-ին.
  4. Brown, Keith, ed. (24 November 2005). Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. Elsevier. էջեր 634–638. ISBN 9780080547848. «Native speakers of Azerbaijani reside, in addition to the Republic of Azerbaijan (where North Azerbaijani is spoken), in Iran (South Azerbaijani), Dagestan, Georgia, Turkey, Syria and Iraq. North Azerbaijani is marked by Russian loanwords and South Azerbaijani is distinguished by Persian loanwords.»
  5. 5,0 5,1 5,2 5,3 5,4 5,5 Քաղվածելու սխալ՝ Սխալ <ref> պիտակ՝ «Ethnologue 22 AZJ» անվանումով ref-երը տեքստ չեն պարունակում:
  6. Sinor, Denis (1969). Inner Asia. History-Civilization-Languages. A syllabus. Bloomington. էջեր 71–96. ISBN 0-87750-081-9.
  7. Mudrak, Oleg (30 April 2009). «Язык во времени. Классификация тюркских языков». polit.ru (ռուսերեն). Վերցված է 31 August 2019-ին. «Распад туркменско-азербайджанского. Несмотря на все уверения, что азербайджанский является ближайшим родственником турецкого, это не так. Наиболее близким к нему (азербайджанскому) является туркменский. Распад этого единства попадает примерно на 1180-й год. Это удивительно. Потому что тогда как раз был конец Империи Великих Сельджуков. Это государство, которое включало в себя земли к югу от Амударьи: Афганистан, Иран, территорию современного Ирака, включая Багдад, Северную Сирию и т. д., распадается. Потом возникает объединение Хорезм-Шахов, но прекращаются прямые контакты между населением, которое было к востоку от Каспия и населением, которое было в районе Тебриза, сердца Азербайджана и Империи Великих Сельджуков.»
  8. «Türk dili, yoxsa azərbaycan dili? (Turkish language or Azerbaijani language?)». BBC (ադրբեջաներեն). 9 August 2016. Վերցված է 15 August 2016-ին.
  9. Atabaki, Touraj (2000). Azerbaijan: Ethnicity and the Struggle for Power in Iran. I.B.Tauris. էջ 25. ISBN 9781860645549.
  10. Dekmejian, R. Hrair; Simonian, Hovann H. (2003). Troubled Waters: The Geopolitics of the Caspian Region. I.B. Tauris. էջ 60. ISBN 978-1860649226. «Until 1918, when the Musavat regime decided to name the newly independent state Azerbaijan, this designation had been used exclusively to identify the Iranian province of Azerbaijan
  11. Rezvani, Babak (2014). Ethno-territorial conflict and coexistence in the caucasus, Central Asia and Fereydan: academisch proefschrift. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. էջ 356. ISBN 978-9048519286. «The region to the north of the river Araxes was not called Azerbaijan prior to 1918, unlike the region in northwestern Iran that has been called since so long ago.»
  12. 12,0 12,1 «AZERBAIJAN». Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. III, Fasc. 2-3. 1987. էջեր 205–257. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (օգնություն)
  13. This is an illustrated copy of Hadikat al-Su'ada of Fuzuli who in his own words wrote it under the grace of an Ottoman official during the reign of the Ottoman sultan, Suleyman the Magnificent (1520-1566) in or before 1547. The text in Azeri Turkish concerns the hardships endured by Prophet Muhammad and his family, especially his grandsons' death in Karbala, Iraq where the author Fuzuli was from. The manuscript is copied in 19 lines of naskh on 167 folios. There are notes and description of miniatures in Turkish in a later hand.
  14. "The Turkic Languages", Osman Fikri Sertkaya (2005) in Turks – A Journey of a Thousand Years, 600-1600, London 978-1-90397-356-1
  15. Wright, Sue; Kelly, Helen (1998). Ethnicity in Eastern Europe: Questions of Migration, Language Rights and Education. Multilingual Matters Ltd. էջ 49. ISBN 978-1-85359-243-0.
  16. Bratt Paulston, Christina; Peckham, Donald (1 October 1998). Linguistic Minorities in Central and Eastern Europe. Multilingual Matters Ltd. էջեր 98–115. ISBN 978-1-85359-416-8.
  17. L. Johanson, "AZERBAIJAN ix. Iranian Elements in Azeri Turkish" in Encyclopædia Iranica [1].
  18. John R. Perry, "Lexical Areas and Semantic Fields of Arabic" in Csató et al. (2005) Linguistic convergence and areal diffusion: case studies from Iranian, Semitic and Turkic, Routledge, p. 97: "It is generally understood that the bulk of the Arabic vocabulary in the central, contiguous Iranic, Turkic and Indic languages was originally borrowed into literary Persian between the ninth and thirteenth centuries CE ..."
  19. electricpulp.com. «AZERBAIJAN ix. Iranian Elements in Azeri Turki – Encyclopaedia Iranica».
  20. «Alphabet Changes in Azerbaijan in the 20th Century». Azerbaijan International. Spring 2000. Վերցված է 21 July 2013-ին.
  21. Language Commission Suggested to Be Established in National Assembly. Day.az. 25 January 2011.
  22. Johanson, L. (6 April 2010). Brown, Keith; Ogilvie, Sarah (eds.). Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. էջեր 110–113. ISBN 978-0-08-087775-4 – via Google Books.
  23. 23,0 23,1 23,2 23,3 Öztopcu, Kurtulus. «Azeri / Azerbaijani». American Association of Teachers of Turkic Languages. Վերցված է 2020-02-05-ին.
  24. 24,0 24,1 G. Doerfer, "Azeri Turkish", Encyclopaedia Iranica, viii, Online Edition, p. 246.
  25. Mark R.V. Southern. Mark R V Southern (2005) Contagious couplings: transmission of expressives in Yiddish echo phrases, Praeger, Westport, Conn. 978-0-31306-844-7
  26. «Greetings to Heydar Baba». umich.edu. Վերցված է 2010-09-08-ին.
  27. Pieter Muysken, "Introduction: Conceptual and methodological issues in areal linguistics", in Pieter Muysken (2008) From Linguistic Areas to Areal Linguistics, p. 30-31 90-272-3100-1 [2]
  28. Viacheslav A. Chirikba, "The problem of the Caucasian Sprachbund" in Muysken, p. 74
  29. Lenore A. Grenoble (2003) Language Policy in the Soviet Union, p. 131 1-4020-1298-5 [3]
  30. [4]Nikolai Trubetzkoy (2000) Nasledie Chingiskhana, p. 478 Agraf, Moscow 978-5-77840-082-5 (Russian)
  31. J. N. Postgate (2007) Languages of Iraq, p. 164, British School of Archaeology in Iraq 0-903472-21-X
  32. Homa Katouzian (2003) Iranian history and politics, Routledge, pg 128: "Indeed, since the formation of the Ghaznavids state in the tenth century until the fall of Qajars at the beginning of the twentieth century, most parts of the Iranian cultural regions were ruled by Turkic-speaking dynasties most of the time. At the same time, the official language was Persian, the court literature was in Persian, and most of the chancellors, ministers, and mandarins were Persian speakers of the highest learning and ability"
  33. "Date of the Official Instruction of Oriental Languages in Russia" by N.I.Veselovsky. 1880. in W.W. Grigorieff ed. (1880) Proceedings of the Third Session of the International Congress of Orientalists, Saint Petersburg (Russian)
  34. A study of Study of Ethnopolitical Conflict in the Caucasus, author Svante E.Cornell, 2001, page 22 (0-203-98887-6)
  35. 35,0 35,1 35,2 35,3 35,4 «Azerbaijani, South». Ethnologue. Արխիվացված է օրիգինալից 5 June 2019-ին. Վերցված է 2020-02-02-ին.
  36. Քաղվածելու սխալ՝ Սխալ <ref> պիտակ՝ «Glottolog» անվանումով ref-երը տեքստ չեն պարունակում:
  37. Schönig (1998), pg. 248.
  38. «Azeris». World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous People. Վերցված է 2013-07-05-ին.
  39. «Iran-Azeris». Library of Congress Country Studies. December 1987. Վերցված է 13 August 2013-ին.
  40. International Business Publications (2005). Iran: Country Study Guide. International Business Publications. ISBN 978-0-7397-1476-8. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (օգնություն); Invalid |ref=harv (օգնություն)
  41. «The World Factbook». Cia.gov. Վերցված է 2013-07-13-ին.
  42. Shaffer, Brenda (2006). The Limits of Culture: Islam and Foreign Policy. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-19529-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (օգնություն), p. 229
  43. Yelda, Rami (2012). A Persian Odyssey: Iran Revisited. AuthorHouse. ISBN 978-1-4772-0291-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (օգնություն), p. 33
  44. «Reza Shah - Historic Footage with Soundtrack».
  45. IranLiveNews (31 October 2010). «The only known footage of the Reza Shah of Iran with audio discovered in Turkey» – via YouTube.
  46. felixiran (23 September 2007). «Reza Shah of Iran speaks to Kemal Ataturk» – via YouTube.
  47. felixiran (8 September 2007). «Reza Shah of Iran meets Ataturk of Turkey» – via YouTube.
  48. Mafinezam, Alidad; Mehrabi, Aria (2008). Iran and Its Place Among Nations. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-275-99926-1. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (օգնություն), p. 57
  49. Heselwood, Barry (2013). Phonetic Transcription in Theory and Practice. EDINGBURGH University Press. էջ 8.
  50. Persian Studies in North America by Mohammad Ali Jazayeri
  51. Shiraliyev, Mammadagha. The Baku Dialect. Azerbaijan SSR Academy of Sciences Publ.: Baku, 1957; p. 41
  52. Householder and Lotfi. Basic Course in Azerbaijani. 1965.
  53. Shiralyeva (1971)
  54. 54,0 54,1 54,2 Mokari & Werner (2016), էջ. 509.
  55. Mokari & Werner (2016), էջ. 514.
  56. Dooley, Ian (6 October 2017). «New Nation, New Alphabet: Azerbaijani Children's Books in the 1990s». Cotsen Children's Library (English and Azerbaijani). Princeton University WordPress Service. Վերցված է 13 December 2017-ին. «Through the 1990s and early 2000s Cyrillic script was still in use for newspapers, shops, and restaurants. Only in 2001 did then president Heydar Aliyev declare "a mandatory shift from the Cyrillic to the Latin alphabet" ... The transition has progressed slowly.»{{cite web}}: CS1 սպաս․ չճանաչված լեզու (link)
  57. Peuch, Jean-Christophe (1 August 2001). «Azerbaijan: Cyrillic Alphabet Replaced By Latin One». Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty (English). Վերցված է 13 December 2017-ին.{{cite web}}: CS1 սպաս․ չճանաչված լեզու (link)
  58. Monakhov, Yola (31 July 2001). «Azerbaijan Changes Its Alphabet». Getty Images (English). Վերցված է 13 December 2017-ին.{{cite web}}: CS1 սպաս․ չճանաչված լեզու (link)
  59. Dilənçi, Piruz (translator); Khomeini, Ruhollah (15 March 1997). «Ayətulla Homeynì: "... Məscìd ìlə mədrəsədən zar oldum"». Müxalifət (Azerbaijani and Persian). Baku. Վերցված է 13 December 2017-ին. {{cite journal}}: |first1= has generic name (օգնություն)CS1 սպաս․ չճանաչված լեզու (link)
  60. Yahya, Harun. «Global Impact of the Works of Harun Yahya V2». Secret Beyond Matter. Վերցված է 23 April 2020-ին.
  61. Excluded from the alphabet in 1938
  62. Now,It is not to used

Bibliography

External links

Կաղապար:Interwiki Կաղապար:Interwiki

Վիքիճամփորդն ունի Azerbaijaniին առնչվող զբոսաշրջային տեղեկատվություն։

Կաղապար:Incubator


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